Introduction
This unit focuses on two key management functions, introducing
the concepts of decision-making and problem-solving in schools.
Individual study time: 2 hours
Learning outcomes
After working through this unit you should be able to:
• define decision-making and problem-solving
• list the major factors which contribute towards effective
decision-making
• state the importance of analysing data and information
for the purposes of making sensible decisions
• involve pupils, teachers, parents and others in making
decisions on matters which affect them
• outline steps that can help ensure that action is taken
on decisions made in the school.
School heads frequently find themselves in situations which
require them to make decisions. They make decisions when they
delegate work or responsibility to staff and when they communicate
to superiors or colleagues at work. Decisions are made at
all levels in order to solve problems and affect the achievement
of the goals and objectives of the school. If decisions are
not taken, a crisis situation may arise. Decision-making and
problem-solving go hand in hand and both are of fundamental
importance in all aspects of school management.
Definitions
Decision-making
This is the process of identifying and selecting a course
of action to be taken to solve a problem. It is a process
through which human, material and financial resources of an
organisation are allocated or committed toward the achievement
of intended goals and objectives. It can further be defined
as the process through which information, ideas, objectives
and knowledge are brought together for action.
Problem-solving
This involves the seeking of solutions to problems that arise
in an organisation. The problem-solving process leads to the
formulation of decisions intended to resolve the recognised
problems. The problem-solving process contains six main elements:
• recognising the problem
• analysing the problem
• working out alternative solutions
• choosing the best alternative
• implementing the chosen solution
• evaluating its effectiveness.
Types and levels of decision-making
Management writers often distinguish between two types of
decisions. These are routine decisions and innovative decisions.
Routine decisions
These deal with operating procedures and are made through
a thorough knowledge of rules, regulations and policies of
the organisation. For example, when you decide on the weekly
duty roster for teachers, this is fairly routine. In some
manuals on the running of schools, heads are guided as to
how to make routine decisions.
Unique decisions
But what of unique or innovative decisions which go beyond
established procedures?
Activity 7.1
Prepare a brief list of the key areas for decision-making in
your school (for example, staffing, finance) and then see if
you can recall an example of a routine decision which you have
recently made in each area. Then think about any decisions which
were in some way unique and note down their characteristics.
Comments
When a head is required to make unique decisions, there are
usually exceptional problems involved which require creativity
and imagination to resolve. Unique decisions could also be
referred to as non-programmed decisions. They often take time
to implement because various factors (for example, resources,
training of personnel, production of support materials, etc.)
may need to be taken into account in the implementation process.
For example, a decision to renovate a school reading room
to become the school resource centre for pupils, teachers
and workers is an innovative one.
Activity 7.2
State who should be involved and why they should be involved
in making a decision about renovating a school reading room
to become the resource centre for pupils, teachers and workers.
Comments
Views on this will vary and may reflect prevailing cultural
and organisational contexts. Two points can be made here.
Firstly, as a school head, you should recognise that there
are several levels of decisions. For example:
Policy decisions: These are made at higher levels
of management such as the Ministry of Education Headquarters.
These are decisions which govern matters such as the educational
reforms for a whole country, new curriculum, training, employment
and deployment of teachers, language policy, etc.
Operational decisions: These are made at the school
level by the head, pupils and parents. You implement policy
decisions within the framework of your school.
A second point concerns the extent to which participation
in decision-making is desirable. We will look at this in the
next sub-section.
Decision-making in the school context
Within the school there are many factors which can contribute
to effective decision-making by the school head.
Activity 7.3
(1) Refer back to your responses on Activity 7.1 and make a
few notes on the extent to which members of your staff take
part in decision-making in these various areas.
(2) Prepare a list of those factors which you believe can adversely
affect decision-making.
(3) What, in your view, is good decision-making practice?
Comments
Decision-making can involve varying degrees of participation
and much will depend on the nature of the decision area, your
own management style and people's willingness to participate.
Arguments in favour of greater participation include the sense
of 'ownership' by those who are involved in implementing decisions
and the possible reduction of conflict.
Decision-making can be influenced by a range of organisational,
political and personal dimensions. For example:
• the role of the head, the teachers and the non-teaching
staff in the school: individual behaviours, personality and
style can affect the process of decision-making
• the role of school boards and parents: what decisions
can they make and how do these affect the head's decisions?
Amongst the characteristics of effective decisions are that
they are necessary and timely, and appropriate to the task
and situation to hand. They need also to be realisable, clearly
communicated to those who have to implement them and acceptable.
The last point can be problematic and the school head may
need to invest considerable effort in persuading staff of
the desirability of the decision. Good decisions ideally need
to meet a variety of competing needs - the head's own needs,
the staff's, the task and the situation. The possibility for
conflict is always around.
Activity 7.4
(1) Identify two decisions you yourself made during the last
two weeks. Outline stages you followed to reach the decisions.
What steps might you take to improve your decision-making?
(2) A parent has informed you that her daughter is expecting
a baby and one of the teachers is suspected to be responsible
for the pregnancy. How do you go about solving this problem?
Comments
You may have found it difficult to present your decision-making
process in terms of the rational stages of problem-solving
suggested earlier in this unit, that is, from 'recognising
the problem' to 'evaluating the effectiveness of your decision'.
Decisions are rarely entirely rational because of the many
complex variables concerned. The mini-case in the activity
highlights this.
Decisions in the school which affect people's life and welfare
require extensive gathering of data and information. The case
requires extensive consultations concerning regulations on
the discipline of pupils and the Teachers' Code of Conduct;
legal provisions for affiliation, mothering and fathering
out of wedlock. Attention will need to be given to social
and cultural roles, the status of the teacher, the parents,
the girl pupil and the head, and to reconciling a range of
different perceptions as to what are appropriate and acceptable
decisions to make about the problem.
Remember, no decision is final. All decisions are subject
to continuous review in order to solve problems in life.
Summary
In this unit we have examined the nature of decision-making
in schools noting its relationship to problem-solving. A number
of characteristics of effective decision-making have been
identified, including the importance of adopting a rational
problem-solving process and the significance of participation
in decision-making to help reduce conflict and improve the
implementation of decisions. |
