In other words, for the purpose of achieving success as a manager, the head must create an environment for 'participatory democracy' in the running of the school.

In this unit, we shall examine the roles that each of the various partners must play in order to enhance the effective and purposeful management of the school.

Individual study time: 10 hours

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
• identify the role of the staff in school management
•demonstrate how students may participate in decision-making processes
•explain the purpose of school committees
• demonstrate how school and community relations may affect the quality of school management
• describe how the community may contribute to the school curriculum.

A summary of the partners and partnerships involved in school management is given in Fig 5.

The role of staff in school management
The more opportunities are given to members of your staff to participate in school management, the greater is likely to be their sense of commitment and ownership of school programmes.

Note: if you want to learn more about how to write a job description refer to Unit 4 in Module 1, Self-Development for Educational Managers.

Comments
The duty posts for teachers which you have identified probably included the deputy or assistant head, academic heads of department as well as house staff - where you run a boarding system. The following might have been included in the list of duties and responsibilities you identified:

Deputy/assistant head: Clearly the deputy or assistant head has a major role to play in supporting the head in every aspect of school life and standing in for the head whenever required. Deputy heads are usually given responsibility for academic matters, including for example, timetabling, examinations and report writing. The working relationship between the head and deputy is critical for the success of a school.

Academic heads of department: One important area of school management where the head must involve the staff and delegate some authority and responsibilities is the organisation of academic departments. The head must recommend the appointment of heads of departments from among those staff who show the most initiative and hard work, and get the best results. Note that in some countries all promotions are done on the basis of advertising posts, making applications, the receipt of appraisal and referees' reports, short-listing and interviews, whilst in others it is more simply done on the basis of seniority.

The specific duties of heads of academic departments include making recommendations for staff appointments; sitting on interview panels for the appointment of staff to their own and other departments; and involving staff in decision-making processes through regular departmental meetings. Other responsibilities are to ensure an adequate supply of relevant textbooks, laboratory and workshop equipment and other teaching and learning materials, as well as supervising the work of other teachers.

House staff: Where a school has boarding facilities, the role of senior housemasters or housemistresses, together with other house staff is crucial in the organisation of the domestic life of pupils, in their welfare and in the maintenance of discipline. The responsibilities of the house staff include giving written permission to enable pupils to leave school, organising periodic roll-calls, ensuring that sick pupils receive medical attention, assisting pupils office-bearers such as house prefects to discharge their responsibilities, and organising periodic house inspections.

Other duty posts and attached responsibilities are:
Form or class teacher: This position is found mainly in secondary schools where, because each class is taught by a teacher who is a specialist in his or her own field, a form teacher is appointed for each class to look after the welfare and academic progress of the pupils.

Guidance and counselling teacher: This teacher, who should have specialist training, co-ordinates and offers guidance and counselling services to pupils.

Teachers in charge of clubs and societies: To guide and advise pupils on the running and operation of their clubs and societies, teachers are appointed as patrons.

Pupil participation in school management
Pupils are in closer touch with each other through peer interaction than the staff are with them, especially in a boarding system. No school can succeed without involving pupils in some of the decision-making processes and even in the general management of the school.

Comments
Some of the ways in which pupils are involved in decision-making and the management of the school are through:
• the prefectorial system
• the monitorial system
• class captains.

The prefectorial system
The prefectorial system, which is as old as the formal school system itself, is perhaps the most potent tool for pupil participation in school management.

The head must ensure that there is an active prefects' council not only to serve as a link between the pupil body and the school management, but also to perform specific functions. The common prefectorial positions include house and dining hall prefects (in boarding schools), an entertainment prefect, a sports and games prefect, a library prefect, a dispensary prefect, etc.

The monitorial system
The monitorial system is a device to provide support for the prefectorial system, and it is especially useful in boarding schools. Monitors may be appointed to perform specific duties in the boarding houses, to serve as dormitory overseers or to assist house prefects in the organisation of games and sports at house level, or the supervision of activities in areas like gardening and environmental protection.

Class captains
Class captains (sometimes designated class prefects) are usually appointed to help the school management ensure class attendance and set standards of behaviour. They may make reports to the appropriate school authority on non-attendance at classes by both staff and pupils. They may also ensure the availability of teaching materials especially chalk, and supervise cleaning duties.

Other areas of pupil participation
Pupil participation in decision-making is also desirable in the field of co-curricular activities; in the organisation of clubs and societies. Although members of staff need to be appointed to serve as patrons of clubs, societies and associations in the school, as far as possible their day-to-day organisation should be left in the hands of the pupils themselves, with their own leaders and officers to liaise with the patrons for guidance.

In summary:
1 Pupils want to be involved because they want to participate in making their school good.
2 Pupils need to be involved in order to learn important life-skills of living and participating in their community and larger society.
3 Pupils have to be involved because heads and their staff cannot manage a school without them.

School committees
A system of committees is an important key to participative management. It is important that the range of committees covers every aspect of school life and that they are well managed. Much time can be lost and participants can be demotivated through an inefficient system of committees. Refer to Unit 7 in Module 3, Personnel Management.

Comments
The day-to-day management of a school, as well as the longer term management of change, depends to quite a large extent upon an effective system of committees. Pupils should be included as members because there are numerous issues which directly affect their personal well-being or welfare, such as discipline, catering and entertainment.

School committees might include:
• Academic committee
• Disciplinary committee
• Catering committee
• Co-curricular activities committee
• Welfare committee.

School and community relations
One of the ingredients for effective school governance is good public relations. In effect, school management involves relationships and communication with the community, since the school is a community within the larger community (the village and district), and the wider society (province, state and nation).

The concept of a community-based school has been variously interpreted. To some, it means the provision by the community of the land and buildings, or of support services and items that directly or indirectly enhance the teaching/learning process and which may be otherwise unavailable or in short supply; others see in it an opportunity to gain control of the management of a school; whilst others see it as a means of utilising the resources of the school to the full, for the benefit of all those within the community. Thus community relations can be very complex depending on whether you see the community as giving resources, using resources or controlling resources.

The concept of community
The word community may refer to a group of people living in one place or locality such as a village or town, or it may refer to a group of persons having the same or similar interests.

Thus, we may have a church or religious sect community; a racial or ethnic community; an occupational or professional group such as a university community or a fishing community, or a social or common interest group such as a Society for the Blind, a Parent-Teacher Association,or a Past Students' Association.

Communities are naturally interested in their own well-being and survival, and so have a keen interest in their offspring or new recruits. Hence, they attempt to hand on the knowledge, values and skills which are special to their group. The school is the main institution for the transmission and acquisition of the knowledge, values and skills, and thus it might be regarded as the most important asset of any community. Thus it is quite natural that we should expect close links between schools and their communities.

Comments
The community groups and organisations which often have close links with schools and which contribute to their progress include:
• Parent-Teacher Associations
• Past Students' Associations
• Professional or Teachers' Associations
• local community groups such as Town Development Committees or welfare societies
• religious bodies.

Sometimes community groups may appear to exist to support and contribute to a school, whereas, in fact, their main effect is to attempt to control. The members of all groups need to be made aware by the school head of the limits of their association with a school.

In the next section let us consider some examples of how different community groups may relate to schools.

Comments
The need for co-operation between a school and its teachers on the one hand, and homes and parents on the other, cannot be over-emphasised. This co-operation is not only likely to be beneficial to the school, but is also absolutely essential to the welfare of pupils. In bringing the home and the school together, the PTA may assist in identifying pupils' needs and in finding solutions. For example, problems of attendance amd drop-outs may be shared. The PTA may provide a forum where the head and the staff may explain school programmes, gain the support of parents, and thus help to ensure their success. Very often the PTA is an important source of financial and material support essential for the development of the school. Similarly, it can be a source of resource persons to help in a wide variety of school projects, from providing a football referee to advice on farming and gardening.

Comments
Past Students' Associations may be organised locally, or at national level with branches if the school is large enough to command a national constituency.

Past Students' Associations have a potential which may be tapped in contributions towards the financial and material upkeep and development of their alma mater. With their concern for the maintenance of high academic standards and discipline, Past Students' Associations may assist immensely in building and maintaining good schools and sustaining tradition.

Conversely, past students may still live in the past, when, for example, the total school roll was much smaller and the per capita funds available were much greater. They may exert undue pressure over such matters as pupil admissions or even over the appointment of a new head. As with other groups, such pressures must be resisted, and the limits of their contributions to their old school agreed.

Comments
Another important link which every school should seek to forge is with Professional Teachers' Associations, such as teachers' and heads' organisations, and subject associations. In addition to promoting and enhancing the status of their members, these associations may provide regular and valued sources of professional advice. Their relations with, and representations on, committees and commissions relating to education, may place them in an advantageous position to influence decisions affecting education nationally. These associations may also run in-service courses and write textbooks and teachers' manuals in support of their professional development.

Comments
The local community, comprising chiefs, local dignitaries, youth organisations, welfare groups, town or village development committees and the local people may influence a school in diverse ways. Parents and the general public have varying degrees of expectation of the role the school should play in the community's life; they expect their wards to develop certain qualities for the improvement of their lives and that of the community. The desire and willingness of local communities or associations to support schools materially and financially has been demonstrated throughout Africa and has been one of the main factors in the expansion and development of education. The head should, therefore, develop and maintain satisfactory relations with and within the community.

Comments
Religious organisations have for many years been involved in the management of schools. They established the first schools and provided them with the materials required for teaching and learning. Schools established by such religious bodies nearly always have close links with them, sometimes through representation on their boards of governors or management committee, but in some cases through direct control. The extent to which such relationships are beneficial, or are allowed or encouraged, varies considerably between countries.

Comments
In the last section we identified some of the ways a conflict of interest may arise between the head of a school and the community. In summary, some of these factors are:
• problems associated with bringing about change
• parochialism
• external pressures
• rivalry between groups within the community
• the background of teachers
• the rights of teachers.

Three case studies are included here to illustrate the potential nature of conflicts and for you to suggest possible solutions.

Case study 1
Film shows
On arrival at her new school as head, Mrs Okafor found that the behaviour of the children was really bad. A fortnight later a member of the school management committee came to her office and requested her assistance in stopping the children from attending film shows at night. On investigation, Mrs Okafor found that the complaint was justified. Firstly, some children were found at the film shows almost every night of the week. Secondly, parents had been giving money to their children for them to attend the night shows.

There was, however, a complication. The owner of the film theatre had for a long time been a generous supporter of the school and there was still an urgent need for funds.

Problems associated with bringing about change
The head of a school is quite likely to face hostile attitudes or indifference to the changes he or she perceives as worthwhile and may wish to introduce. Resistance may come from any quarter; groups may combine to thwart the efforts of the head or may set up in opposition to each other. Such situations call for tactfulness and mature judgement, but perhaps above all, for participation in the change process so that all may develop a sense of ownership and call the change their own. The head's resistance or failure to involve others may well encourage some to try to undermine his or her administration.

Parochialism
There is the unfortunate impression sometimes created in the minds of local communities that government schools established in their areas belong entirely to them. This leads to undue interference by chiefs, local dignitaries, opinion leaders, youth associations and so on in the work of the school head. These individuals or groups may exert pressures in various ways on the school and they may become critics who fan local sentiments against the head and use the opportunity to undermine and replace him/her with a local favourite.

Such situations might be very difficult to handle. Where you have the support from senior line managers, such as the District Education Officer, it may be necessary to meet these critics head-on. If you can demonstrate your professionalism, in particular that you have the interests of your staff and students as a first priority, then your position should be safeguarded.

External pressures
Obtaining donations not only necessitates regular and good relations with the PTA or the Past Students' Association, but may also mean that the local community may expect favours in return. Members of the local community may seek special favours in the award of contracts, in the use of school facilities such as transport, in the admission of unqualified students or in the employment of relatives.

Dealing with those who seek special favours is always difficult. A degree of flexibility is essential, but too much favouritism will lead to breaking the law. Where clear rules and procedures are laid down, then heads can use these as a defence against those who seek to place undue pressure.

Rivalry between groups within communities
Conflicts arising out of ethnic interests within the community, or between communities in the siting or control of schools, or resulting from land disputes, can adversely affect the operation of a school. Communities may be even further divided by religion; where a religious group manages to have a school established in a thinly populated area, an unviable school with low enrolments may be created. The rivalries within communities which may result can adversely affect school management.

Case study 2
Communities in conflict
Sigi school serves two separate communities which are constantly opposed to each other. In village politics, religion and social activities they hold opposing views. When one party is helping the head, the other engages in continuous criticism and sometimes bitter opposition. The problem is not helped by the fact that the staff is also divided on ethnic grounds, while the pupils simply reflect the attitudes of their parents. Mr Solon, the school head, although a member of the dominant community, is nevertheless concerned to bring about a reconciliation of interests.

Intra-communal conflicts occurring in the community within which a school is located, can only be solved by community leaders and politicians, and not by school heads and their staff alone. It is worth remembering that, no matter who we are, we are members of some minority group. Treating others (i.e. members of other groups) as we, ourselves, would be treated should be a basic rule followed by us all.

Background of teachers
The background of teachers in a school may be yet another obstacle to school-community integration. The teachers from other areas may well be respected but are likely to be regarded as outsiders, and they are handicapped when they try to build close links between their schools and the community. As we have mentioned earlier, in certain institutions and by tradition, the head who is not a past student may have conflicts with some sections of the community of past students.

Some prejudice against outsiders exists almost everywhere, except, perhaps in the most cosmopolitan areas, but it must be resisted, and the head of a school can play a significant part in helping to overcome it.

Rights of teachers
Many partners in the education enterprise are not conversant with the service conditions of teachers. Consequently, certain influential elements within the community sometimes resort to steps which infringe upon the professional rights of the head and the staff. Some may even go to the extent of literally dictating to the head and trying to direct the day-to-day management of the school.

Case study 3
The politician
A school committee member is a well-to-do person who involves himself in active politics. He has relations holding key posts in the Ministry. Without the knowledge of the head, the committee member reprimands a staff member of the school and writes to one of his Ministry contacts suggesting that the teacher be transferred to another school.

The teacher concerned feels that this is improper and unprofessional. He maintains that only the head who is his immediate superior officer has the power to do such a thing. He therefore approaches the head, who then becomes aware of the situation for the first time. The head is anxious to avoid the transfer and replacement of the teacher particularly since an examination class is involved and the examinations are a few weeks away. She realises, however, that the committee member could be difficult to oppose.

The head must, therefore, be knowledgeable about service conditions and the law with regard to the rights of teachers and be confident in expressing these rights in order to educate the community on relevant issues and to be able to avert such situations.

Promoting good school-community relationships
As we have emphasised through this unit, no school exists in isolation from the community and the society of which it should be an integral part. The quality of the school environment includes the quality of its relationships with the community.

An important management function of the head, therefore, is to maintain a strong positive working relationship between the school and the community for effective school management.

Comments
Some of the ideas for promoting good school-community relationships which you may have included in your proposals are as follows:

1 Encourage participation by the pupils of the school in the social, economic and cultural life of the community.
2 Make some school facilities and resources available to the community for educational and social purposes.
3 Supply important information about the school to the public.
4 Maintain regular contact with some outside institutions and educational bodies that may be of mutual benefit.
5 Ensure that the head and staff are more tactful, considerate, sympathetic but frank, on what they can do with respect to requests from the public.
6 Encourage the head, staff and pupils to receive and attend to all visitors politely and as helpfully as may be possible.
7 Occasionally invite local dignitaries from each interest group to share in the life of the school for example, during speech and prize-giving or open days, sporting activities, and staff parties.
8 Ensure that the head does not take sides in local politics but is neutral and impartial, and firm in following service regulations and the law.

The community and the school curriculum
The resources within each school and within each community and the environment around are the main sources of learning and development for the children we teach, particularly those who are drawn from the locality and to which they return at the end of the day. It is therefore necessary for the school curriculum to utilise these resources to the fullest extent.

On page 34 we considered different perceptions of what a community is. Here let us briefly consider what we mean by curriculum.

The curriculum
The term curriculum is often used just to denote the subjects taught in the school or an outline of a course of study. In recent times, it has been used in a broader sense to refer to the whole life and programme arranged by a school for directing the interests and abilities of the children towards effective participation in the life of a community and a nation. It is considered, in fact, to be everything that transpires in the course of planning, teaching and learning by a school. In other words, it may be seen as the sum total of all the experiences the learner undergoes, for which the school accepts responsibility.

Refer to Module 4, Managing the Curriculum and Resources, for more information and discussion.

Comments
Check to see to what extent your answers correspond to the following reasons:
1 Since education involves the transmission of the knowledge, culture, attitudes and skills of a people to the next generation it is appropriate for the community to make an input into the curriculum in order to achieve this.
2 Through community participation in the work of the school, parents may become more interested in the things their children are doing; this may help to reduce levels at which children drop-out of school.
3 Since many school leavers will stay within the community to be active participants in its social, economic, cultural and political life, the community should be shown how to make an input into the curriculum that may assist in preparing pupils for adult life.
4 Resource persons abound in any local community, particularly in such areas as vocational skills, local history and cultural practices and business and commercial skills, and these must be made use of by the school.
5 Community input into the school curriculum may help to ensure that desirable attitudes are developed in pupils.

Comments
Some of the ways in which your local community may already be contributing to your school curriculum may include:

1 Experienced and knowledgeable individuals within the community may be invited from time to time to talk about local history, geography, culture and religious practices: such studies may cover the role of chiefs and the importance of chieftaincy as an institution, linguists and musicians.
2 The community under the leadership of the local chief may have donated land for school buildings and a school farm.
3 The community may, through voluntary contributions in the form of funds and materials and by providing labour, have assisted the school in constructing and maintaining teaching facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops and teachers' houses. The harambee movement in Kenya indicates how vigorous local communities may provide facilities for their school.
4 As is amply demonstrated in Tanzania a community school committee may help to design the school curriculum, at least in respect of local studies which are built into and around the national core curriculum. Such studies might include contributions by technical experts and professionals, such as commercial farmers, doctors, accountants and businessmen.
5 Local skilled craftsmen may have been invited to give demonstrations and training in practical production activities in the school, for example, in furniture making, car maintenance, pottery, weaving and building.

Summary
In this unit we have examined a wide range of issues affecting school governance which affect the quality of school management. The point has been made that effective school management can be achieved only through a strong partnership between heads and their staff and pupils, and a number of groups both within and outside the local school community, including other sections of the Ministry of Education.